Advertising
Over the past decade, political momentum has grown for strong action to tackle childhood obesity and there is an emerging consensus that regulation of food advertising to children is both necessary and achievable.
Creating an environment in which children in the United States grow up healthy should be a priority for the nation. Yet the prevailing pattern of food and beverage marketing to children in
Advertising and Marketing
It has been estimated that the average child currently views more than 40,000 commercials on television each year, a sharp increase from 20,000 in the 1970s.
Furthermore, an accumulated body of research reveals that more than 50 percent of television advertisements directed at children promote foods and beverages such as candy, convenience foods, snack foods, sugar-sweetened beverages, and sweetened breakfast cereals that are high in calories and fat and low in fiber and nutrient value. Recent statistics on food advertising to children indicate that annual sales of foods and beverages to young consumers exceeded $27 billion in 2002. The food and beverage advertisers collectively spend $10 to $12 billion annually to reach children and youth. More than $1 billion is spent on media advertising to children (primarily on television), more than $4.5 billion is spent on youth-targeted public relations, and $3 billion is spent on packaging designed for children. In addition, fast food outlets spend $3 billion in television ads targeted to children. At its peak, the main
A recent literature review by Kaiser Family Foundation highlighted a number of studies that suggested that advertising influenced dietary and other food choices in children, which likely contributed to energy imbalance and weight gain. One study found that among children as young as three, the amount of weekly television viewing was significantly related to their caloric intake as well as requests and parental purchases of specific foods they saw advertised on television. Several studies found a relationship between the amounts of time children spent watching TV and how often they requested specific products at the grocery store. The World Health Organization implies that marketing affects food choices and influences dietary habits with subsequent implications for weight gain and obesity. While the American Psychological Association in 2004 made a statement that advertising to children is unfair because of their limited comprehension of the nature and purpose of television advertising and warrants government action to protect young children. Lastly the
Review of the Evidence on Advertising and Obesity
A 2003 review of the available literature on advertising and obesity analyzed the relationship between advertising to children and obesity. Following the review of more than 30,000 articles, 120 were determined to be most relevant. Based on these, the study concluded that advertising to children has an adverse effect on food preferences, purchasing behavior, and consumption. However, these findings must be weighed against the fact that the strongest and most cited study in the review does not fully support this notion. This study involves a sample of 262 children selected from white families in
A second study looked at the influence of advertising relative to other factors and once again the influence of food advertising was small. Taken together, these and other observations effectively undermine the main conclusions of the literature review. Despite media claims to the contrary, there is no absolute evidence that advertising has a substantial influence on children’s food consumption and, consequently, no reason to believe that a complete ban on advertising would have any useful impact on childhood obesity rates.
This conclusion is also supported by evidence from
Portion Size
Increasing portion size is one of the many factors that are likely to contribute to the current obesity crisis, particularly the increase in beverage portions. Researchers have concluded that when the calories from a caloric beverage is added to energy from food, total energy from intake at lunch was increased significantly (p<.05) compared with non-caloric beverages. The consumption of sugar-sweetened drinks is associated with increased total caloric intake for many individuals, especially children and adolescents and contributes to obesity in children. The concept of more products for less money is not inherently bad, but in the case of food, this strategy is applied disproportionately to unhealthy choices.
Supersizing at fast food restaurants is well known, but the concept is used in other settings as well (e.g., movie theaters urge customers to buy large containers of popcorn and soft drinks). When one buys broccoli, oranges, or whole grains, the unit price does not decrease as one purchase more. A 2001 study examined the pricing and promotion of low fat snacks from vending machines. Low fat snacks in school vending machines were priced at four levels (equal price, 10 percent, 25 percent, and 50 percent reduction) as compared to regular snacks. Results of this study showed that price reduction of low fat snacks increased sales significantly and average profit per vending machine did not change. Lowering the prices of low fat vending snacks had a strong effect on sales of low fat snacks from vending machines at diverse worksites and secondary schools. Consumer research shows that people believe that larger packages are a better value, but also use more of a product when it comes in a larger package. This has been shown with eating behavior (i.e., people eat more when given larger portions) and use of nonfood products such as laundry detergent (i.e., people use more detergent per wash when it comes from a larger container).
Summary
Although advertising and the media may contribute to obesity, they are not the only ones at fault. The changing home environment such as single-family households, food insecurities, and lack of supermarkets in low socioeconomic areas are major contributors
to obesity. In 1970, about 25 percent of total food spending occurred in restaurants. By 1995, 40 percent of food dollars were spent away from home. Americans’ spending on fast food increased from $6 billion to $110 billion over the last 30 years.
On average, children ages 11–18 eat at fast food restaurants twice a week. he percentage of food consumed by children in restaurants and fast-food outlets nearly tripled between 1977 (6.5 percent) and 1996 (19.3 percent). A study in
The decline in physical activity in children (and adults) has been exacerbated by the failure of the government to provide an environment in which physical activity can be incorporated into everyday life. Parents who have concerned about traffic or safety will probably opt for the car and not the pavement. The role of schools in promoting an active lifestyle needs more emphasis and funding.
Many schools have insufficient resources to purchase basic items of sports equipment. Emphasis on competition and sporting performance in schools alienates those children who are less physically gifted and diminishes the importance of regular physical activity in relation to health. The National Curriculum should include a lifestyle module in which
children learn about the health benefits of physical activity for life, not simply competitive sport during their school years. Health policy makers and those who control the public purse should also bear in mind that active children are more likely to become physically active adults with lower rates of heart disease, diabetes, and cancer. Even those who are obese but physically it can expect better long-term health outcomes than their sedentary, lean but unit counterparts.
Future Research
Obesity, poor diet, and inactivity are severe global problems, a consequence of the current environment. To make progress the environment must change. This will require close attention to both food and physical activity environments, and, support of inventiveness at the community level, increased funding, and perseverance despite deeply rooted systemic problems.
For every complex problem, there is a simple solution and it is always wrong. The claim that food advertising is a major contributor to children’s food choices and the rising tide of childhood obesity has obvious appeal, but as an argument, it does not stand up to scrutiny. In order to establish a causal relationship between food advertising and childhood obesity, many questions need to be answered using longitudinal studies designed with a sufficient statistical power.
See also: Children’s Television Programming; Computers and the Media; Fast Food; Food Marketing to Children; Supersizing; Television.
Bibliography. David Ashton, “Food Advertising and Childhood Obesity,” Journal of the Royal Society of Medicine (v.97/2, 2004); K. Brownell, Food Fight: The Inside Story of the Food Industry, America’s Obesity Crisis, and What We Can Do About it (McGraw-Hill, 2004); N. Ritchey and C. Olson, “Relationships Between Family Variables and Children’s Preference for Consumption of Sweet Foods,” Ecology of Food and Nutrition (v.13/4, 1983); E. Schlosser, Fast Food Nation (Harper Perennial, 2005); M.P. St. Onge, K.L. Keller, and S.B. Heymsield, “Changes in Childhood Food Consumption Patters,” American Journal of Clinical Nutrition (v.78/6, 2003); M. Story, R. Forshee, and P. Anderson, “Beverage Consumption in the U.S. Population,” Journal of the American Dietetic Association (v.106/12, 2006).
